ISSN 2731-0574 (online). Political Psychol. An archival study of implicit assumptions of generalizability of findings to human nature based on origins of study samples. Vosoughi, S., Roy, D. & Aral, S. The spread of true and false news online. J. Appl. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. & Basol, M. Inoculation theory in the post-truth era: extant findings and new frontiers for contested science misinformation, and conspiracy theories. Public Health 110, S278S280 (2020). & Wnke, M. The truth about the truth: a meta-analytic review of the truth effect. Amazeen, M. A. Second, most existing work has focused on explicit misinformation and text-based materials. The warning also indicated a potential threat of pea-size hail and advised residents to . Scientist 65, 825846 (2021). For example, a person might be taught that techniques used to mislead include selective use (cherry-picking) of data (for example, only showing temperatures from outlier years to create the illusion that global temperatures have dropped) or the use of fake experts (for example, scientists with no expertise in climate science). Sci. Ithisuphalap, J., Rich, P. R. & Zaragoza, M. S. Does evaluating belief prior to its retraction influence the efficacy of later corrections? Med. The calf already stands 6 feet tall and is now available for the public to see at the zoo. Due to resource limitations and opportunity costs, corrections should focus on misinformation that circulates among a substantive portion of the population and carries potential for harm183. Psychonomic Bull. Connor Desai, S. A., Pilditch, T. D. & Madsen, J. K. The rational continued influence of misinformation. Ognyanova, K., Lazer, D., Robertson, R. E. & Wilson, C. Misinformation in action: fake news exposure is linked to lower trust in media, higher trust in government when your side is in power. Psychol. Evidence for this account comes from studies demonstrating that the CIE increases as a function of factors associated with increased familiarity (such as repetition)107 and reduced recollection (such as advanced participant age and longer study-test delays)92. RSD continues to work closely with the Rangers to ensure that all illegal activity is uncovered and stopped. 19, 5180 (2005). For example, in March 2020, 31% of Americans agreed that COVID-19 was purposefully created and spread33, despite the absence of any credible evidence for its intentional development. References: This cognitive behavioral exercise was developed . Res. Policy 2, 8595 (2016). Porter, E. & Wood, T. J. J. These studies suggest that to the extent that people pay attention to accuracy, they are likely to share things they genuinely believe. J. Cognit. All of these recommendations are also fundamental principles of media literacy166. Machete, P. & Turpin, M. The use of critical thinking to identify fake news: a systematic literature review. Corrections do not generally increase false beliefs among individuals who were previously unfamiliar with the misinformation222. Appl. 20, 93120 (2021). & Lazer, D. Public health and online misinformation: challenges and recommendations. Soc. Misinformation Rev. 30, 14491459 (2019). https://www.poynter.org/ifcn/, World Health Organization: It can also be quite rational to discount a correction if the correction source is low in credibility121,122. Thus, both the interconnectedness and the amount of correct information can influence the success of memory revision. Psychol. Wintersieck, A. L. Debating the truth. For example, labelling can lead readers to be more sceptical of promoted content220. 47, 155177 (2020). Cogn. Shtulman, A. on Barriers to belief revision; E.K.V. Taking fact-checks literally but not seriously? 49, 631644 (2021). Psychol. Med. One successful intervention focused on lateral reading consulting external sources to examine the origins and plausibility of a piece of information, or the credibility of an information source115,167,168. The authors declare no competing interests. Lecture Notes Comput. Psychol. Mem. 12, 921 (2021). Philippine Political Sci. https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-009 (2020). Am. Psychol. 29, 749760 (2018). Commun. BMC Public Health 15, 1207 (2015). Because social media algorithms promote content that is likely to be shared, the interplay of psychological tendencies and technological optimization can thus easily lead to viral spread of misinformation online. All students and staff were taken outside and are safe. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-021-01232-8 (2021). Res. 62, 296306 (2014). The drivers include cognitive factors, such as use of intuitive thinking and memory failures; social factors, such as reliance on source cues to determine truth; and affective factors, such as the influence of mood on credulity. Sci. Natl Acad. Individually, each intervention might only incrementally reduce the spread of misinformation, but one preprint that has not been peer-reviewed suggests that combinations of interventions can have a substantial impact246. Carnahan, D., Hao, Q., Jiang, X. When reasoning about the event later (for example, responding to questions such as what should authorities do now?), individuals often continue to rely on the critical information even after receiving and being able to recall a correction89. 64, 93132 (2016). & Cabeza, R. On known unknowns: fluency and the neural mechanisms of illusory truth. The simplest prebunking interventions involve presenting factually correct information149,150, a pre-emptive correction142,151 or a generic misinformation warning99,148,152,153 before the misinformation. Sinatra, G. M. & Lombardi, D. Evaluating sources of scientific evidence and claims in the post-truth era may require reappraising plausibility judgments. Soc. Trevors, G. & Duffy, M. C. Correcting COVID-19 misconceptions requires caution. Weeks, B. E. Emotions, partisanship, and misperceptions: how anger and anxiety moderate the effect of partisan bias on susceptibility to political misinformation. Psychol. & Lazer, D. Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Breakstone, J. et al. On Aug. 18, 2023, the Texas Rangers arrested two DPS employees for their roles in this crime. Psychol. Conscience, self-identifying moral commitments, and moral integrity. Theoretical accounts of the CIE draw heavily on models of memory in which information is organized in interconnected networks and the availability of information is determined by its level of activation99,100 (Fig. Health 6, e003910 (2021). Am. The general content of postinoculation talk: recalled issue-specific conversations following inoculation treatments. California officials warn 'worst of the storm has yet to come' as A., Jost, J. T., Tucker, J. Multiple approaches can be combined into a single correction for example, highlighting both the factual and logical inaccuracies in the misinformation or undermining source credibility and underscoring factual errors94,95,145. Affective influences on gullibility. a. Emotion Likewise, some specific emotional states such as a happy mood can make people more vulnerable to deception78 and illusory truth79. When deciding what is true, people are often biased to believe in the validity of information30, and go with their gut and intuitions instead of deliberating31,32. Misinformation has been identified as a major contributor to various contentious contemporary events ranging from elections and referenda to the response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychol.Sci. J. Consum. Political Mark. Generally, information literacy and media literacy (which focuses on knowledge and skills for the reception and dissemination of information through the media) interventions are designed to improve critical thinking165 and the application of such interventions to spaces containing many different types of information might help people identify misinformation166. Psychol. 2, 201209 (2013). Misinformation which we define as any information that turns out to be false poses an inevitable challenge for human cognition and social interaction because it is a consequence of the fact that people frequently err and sometimes lie1. Cynthia Miranda graduated from UT Austin and is a proud Houstonian. Cogn. Public Opin. Van Bavel, J. J., Reinero, D. A., Spring, V., Harris, E. A. de Blois, L., Erdkamp, P., Hekster, O., de Kleijn, G. & Mols, S.) 2035 (J. C. Gieben, 2013). Yonelinas, A. P. The nature of recollection and familiarity: Aa review of 30 years of research. & Ecker, U. K. H. Refuting spurious COVID-19 treatment claims reduces demand and misinformation sharing. Amin, A. b | Retrieval account of continued influence. & Vargo, C. J. Psychol. Am. HOUSTON, Texas Multiple people, including two Department of Public Safety employees, have been arrested for providing fake vehicle inspections, which is known as clean scanning, in Texas. Res. Soc. This influence might be due to a general negativity bias11,135 or more specific emotional influences. Giraffe experts at the zoo said they believe she is the "only solid-colored reticulated giraffe living anywhere on the planet.". Learn. These cognitive accounts do not explicitly consider the influence of social and affective mechanisms on the CIE. One socio-affective factor is source credibility, the perceived trustworthiness and expertise of the sources providing the misinformation and correction. & Johnson, M. K. Source monitoring 15 years later: what have we learned from fMRI about the neural mechanisms of source memory? & eelj, I. 20, 4996 (2009). Sci. NeuroImage 193, 4656 (2019). How various barriers to belief updating can be overcome by specific communication strategies applied during correction, using climate change misinformation as an example. Based on this assessment, practitioners can prepare fact-based alternative accounts, and either continue monitoring the situation while preparing for a quick response, or deploy pre-emptive (prebunking) or reactive (debunking) interventions, depending on the traction of the misinformation. Memory 28, 617631 (2020). J. Wang, Y., McKee, M., Torbica, A. These studies are especially needed over the long term weeks to months, or even years and should test a range of outcome measures, for example those that relate to health and political behaviours, in a range of contexts. Moreover, people often overlook, ignore, forget or confuse cues about the source of information62. Psychol. Debunking emphasizes responding to specific misinformation after exposure to demonstrate why it is false. J. Copyright 2023 Click2Houston.com is managed by Graham Digital and published by Graham Media Group, a division of Graham Holdings. 15, 84113 (2021). Eur. All students and staff are safely outside. Brashier, N. M., Pennycook, G., Berinsky, A. J. 964728 JITSUVAX). & Farinacci, S. Dissociation of processes in belief: source recollection, statement familiarity, and the illusion of truth. Commun. Q. J. Exp. More broadly speaking, any intervention to strengthen public trust in science, journalism, and democratic institutions is an intervention against the impacts of misinformation247,248. Behav. However, the misinformation should be prefaced with a warning99,148 and repeated only once in order not to boost its familiarity unnecessarily104. 38, 10871100 (2010). 36, 983991 (2010). However, lack of access to high-quality information is not necessarily the primary precursor to false-belief . Sci. Mem. Cook, J., Lewandowsky, S. & Ecker, U. K. H. Neutralizing misinformation through inoculation: exposing misleading argumentation techniques reduces their influence. A 63, 3947 (2017). No actually it was a technical fault: processing corrections of emotive information. Whereas pre-emptive interventions can equip people to recognize and resist misinformation, reactive interventions retrospectively target concrete instances of misinformation. Psychol. Technol. OSF https://osf.io/cdfh3/ (2021). Exp. Sci. Some of the main cognitive (green) and socio-affective (orange) factors that can facilitate the formation of false beliefs when individuals are exposed to misinformation. As discussed in the preceding section, interventions to combat misinformation must overcome various cognitive, social and affective barriers. Harv. Pennycook, G. & Rand, D. G. The psychology of fake news. Digit. Behav. Educ. Psychol. J. Mem. psyarxiv https://psyarxiv.com/6pv5c/ (2021). 45, 168181 (2017). Soc. & Griskevicius, V. The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms. 8, 704719 (2020). More sophisticated interventions draw on inoculation theory, a framework for pre-emptive interventions154,155,156. 22, 916933 (2021). we believe it is more worthwhile. Given the well-known attitudebehaviour gap that attitude change does not readily translate into behavioural effects researchers should also attempt to use more behavioural measures, such as information-sharing measures, rather than relying exclusively on self-report questionnaires93,94,95. Inf. & Hong, Y. One instantiation of this selective-retrieval view appeals to a dual-process mechanism, which assumes that retrieval can occur based on an automatic, effortless process signalling information familiarity (I think I have heard this before) or a more strategic, effortful process of recollection that includes contextual detail (I read about this in yesterdays newspaper)108. Discourse Process. Conroe ISD released the following statement: Out of an abundance of caution, Oak Ridge High School and Oak Ridge High School 9th Grade Campus have evacuated the buildings due to a phoned-in report of bombs planted somewhere in the school. Mem. This research should also employ non-experimental methods230,231,271, such as observational causal inference (research aiming to establish causality in observed real-world data)272, and test the impact of interventions in the real world145,174,181,207. Commun. 79, 7886 (2018). Psychol. Checking the fact-checkers in 2008: predicting political ad scrutiny and assessing consistency. We use the term misinformation as an umbrella term referring to any information that turns out to be false and reserve the term disinformation for misinformation that is spread with intention to harm or deceive. Although there is some controversy about echo chambers and their impact on peoples beliefs and behaviours12,15, the internet is an ideal medium for the fast spread of falsehoods at the expense of accurate information16. Kennedy Sch. Dada, S., Ashworth, H. C., Bewa, M. J. & Bucy, E. P. Conferring resistance to digital disinformation: the inoculating influence of procedural news knowledge. The misinformation can be retrieved without the false tag, but the false tag cannot be retrieved without concurrent retrieval of the misinformation. Commun. Sci. 25, 388402 (2021). 5, 47 (2020). The effectiveness of these corrections is influenced by a range of factors, and there are mixed results regarding their relative efficacy. The Consequences of Belief - Coaching to Come Alive Appl. Lewandowsky, S. Conspiracist cognition: chaos convenience, and cause for concern. For example, misinformation that a vaccine has caused an unexpectedly large number of deaths might be incorporated with knowledge related to diseases, vaccinations and causes of death. Journal. J. Exp. Schwarz, N., Sanna, L. J., Skurnik, I. Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, B. K. & Marsh, E. J. Unkelbach, C. Reversing the truth effect: learning the interpretation of processing fluency in judgments of truth. However, a narrative format is not a necessary ingredient140,217, and anecdotes and stories can also be misleading218. The global effectiveness of fact-checking: evidence from simultaneous experiments in Argentina, Nigeria, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. This theory applies the principle of vaccination to knowledge, positing that inoculating people with a weakened form of persuasion can build immunity against subsequent persuasive arguments by engaging peoples critical-thinking skills (Fig. 28, 15311546 (2017). 3, 36 (2020). Broadcasting Electron. 71, 499515 (2020). Van Boekel, M., Lassonde, K. A., OBrien, E. J. Harv. 97, 161187 (2020). and J.C. were lead authors. Research broadly finds that direct corrections are effective in reducing although frequently not eliminating reliance on the misinformation in a persons reasoning86,87. Journal. Hum. Jones, M. O. Disinformation superspreaders: the weaponisation of COVID-19 fake news in the Persian Gulf and beyond. Psychol. Implic. & Maibach, E. Scientific agreement can neutralize politicization of facts. Bastani, P. & Bahrami, M. A. COVID-19 related misinformation on social media: a qualitative study from Iran. An experimental study in identifying checkable statements in political discourse. Ecker, U. K. H., Butler, L. H. & Hamby, A. Trevors, G., Bohn-Gettler, C. & Kendeou, P. The effects of experimentally induced emotions on revising common vaccine misconceptions. Discourse Process. In one study, participants read positive, neutral and negative headlines about the actions of specific people; social judgements about the people featured in the headlines were strongly determined by emotional valence of the headline but unaffected by trustworthiness of the news source74. Notably, social media corrections are more effective when they are specific to an individual piece of content rather than a generalized warning148. There are some innocuous reasons to intentionally spread falsehoods; for example, it is tempting to share information that would be interesting (or consequential) if true282. Psychol. 94, 975994 (2018). Nature Reviews Psychology J. Cognit. Psychol. 28, 306313 (2019). Sci. Hum. Hahl, O., Kim, M. & Sivan, E. W. Z. Sci. Nyhan, B. 12067, 235246 (2020). Dir. Res. The Health Belief Model (HBM) is a tool that scientists use to try to predict health behaviors. The Debunking Handbook 2020 (George Mason Univ., 2020). 108, 104028 (2019). Cogn. Mihailidis, P. & Viotty, S. Spreadable spectacle in digital culture: civic expression, fake news, and the role of media literacies in post-fact society. Google Scholar. Sci. And, they have three components: an affective component (feelings), a behavioral component (the effect of the attitude on behavior), and a cognitive component (belief and knowledge) (Rosenberg & Hovland, . Nyhan, B., Reifler, J. Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder U.K.H.E. Political psychology in the digital (mis)information age: a model of news belief and sharing. We review the theoretical models that have been proposed to explain misinformations resistance to correction. Soc. Appl. J. Exp. PubMed & Ortega, T. Evaluating information: the cornerstone of civic online reasoning. Garrett, R. K. The echo chamber distraction: disinformation campaigns are the problem not audience fragmentation. 658, 3666 (2015). Political Commun. Patient Educ. It is, therefore, important to scrutinize whether the practices and algorithms of media platforms are optimized to promote misinformation or truth. Sci. More generally, two strategies that can be distinguished are pre-emptive intervention (prebunking) and reactive intervention (debunking). Journal. Copyright 2023 by KPRC Click2Houston - All rights reserved. Kennedy Sch. USA 116, 25212526 (2019). Direct. Altay, S., Hacquin, A.-S. & Mercier, H. Why do so few people share fake news? News in an era of content confusion: effects of news use motivations and context on native advertising and digital news perceptions. Similarly, although people are quick to distrust others who share fake news65, they frequently forget information sources66. Bennett, W. L. & Livingston, S. The disinformation order: disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions. & Wong, W.-Y. Brady, W. J., Crockett, M. J. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Which group of psychologists is known to approach their research with questions about "what is working" instead of "what is not working?", What do we call researchers who study resources that help children and adolescents overcome life's many challenges?, Who designs and conducts programs to help youth make the most of their . However, lack of access to high-quality information is not necessarily the primary precursor to false-belief formation; a range of cognitive, social and affective factors influence the formation of false beliefs (Fig. MacFarlane, D., Tay, L. Q., Hurlstone, M. J. Terrorists brought down the plane! Commun. Walter, N. & Murphy, S. T. How to unring the bell: a meta-analytic approach to correction of misinformation. 11, 119123 (2002). Inf. Q. J. Exp. Dis. Chan, M.-P. S., Jones, C. R., Jamieson, K. H. & Albarracn, D. Debunking: a meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. Mass. & Reifler, J. Beliefs dont always persevere: how political figures are punished when positive information about them is discredited. Psychol. Scheufele, D. A. For example, two non-peer-reviewed preprints have found that COVID-19 misinformation on Fox News was causally associated with reduced adherence to public health measures and a larger number of COVID-19 cases and deaths230,231. 95, 2848 (2016). Cognit. & Rand, D. G. Timing matters when correcting fake news. Environ. J. Commun. This tendency is concerning: even though a small number of social media accounts spread an outsized amount of misleading content67,68,69, if consumers do not remember the dubious origin, they might not discount the content accordingly. Nat. Mem. Princ. 4, 160802 (2017). Nat Rev Psychol 1, 1329 (2022). Peacock, C., Masullo, G. M. & Stroud, N. J. Whats in a label? Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. Correction as a solution for health misinformation on social media. The Montgomery County Sheriffs Office and Shenandoah and Oak Ridge North Police Departments are also supporting the schools. Sci. & Fielding, K. S. Attitude roots and jiu jitsu persuasion: understanding and overcoming the motivated rejection of science. Holocaust Genocide Stud. Mem. and P.S. 6, 271290 (2018). Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J. Educ. Lang. Trevors, G. The roles of identity conflict, emotion, and threat in learning from refutation texts on vaccination and immigration. Political Behav. Clim. Thank you for visiting nature.com. Am. Guess, A. M. et al. & Thitsar, M. T. Poison if you dont know how to use it: Facebook, democracy, and human rights in Myanmar. Future empirical and theoretical work would benefit from development of an overarching theoretical model that aims to integrate cognitive, social and affective factors, for example by utilizing agent-based modelling approaches. Rich, J. in Private and Public Lies. Prebunking seeks to help people recognize and resist subsequently encountered misinformation, even if it is novel. & Compton, J. Inoculations efficacy with young adults risky behaviors: can inoculation confer cross-protection over related but untreated issues? Lewandowsky, S. et al. Petersen, M. B., Osmundsen, M. & Arceneaux, K. The need for chaos and motivations to share hostile political rumors. Multiple people, including 2 DPS employees, arrested - Click2Houston Retracted misinformation does not continue to influence explicit person impressions. Dir. R. Soc. Thoughtless sharing can amplify misinformation that might confuse and deceive others. J. Exp. J. Pers. Cognit. Commun. 57, 1369613697 (2018). Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S. & Apai, J. USA 116, 76627669 (2019). More research is needed on the extent to which different types of misinformation might be associated with differential psychological impacts and barriers for revision, and to establish the extent to which people infer intentionality and how this might affect their processing of the false information. In one study, participants received questions (If youre running a race and you pass the person in second place, what place are you in?) with intuitive, but incorrect, answers (first place). However, evidence for the utility of identity affirmations in the context of misinformation corrections is mixed194, so firm recommendations cannot yet be made. & van der Linden, S. Breaking Harmony Square: a game that inoculates against political misinformation. Fourth, corrections should be paired with relevant social norms, including injunctive norms (protecting the vulnerable by getting vaccinated is the right thing to do) and descriptive norms (over 90% of parents are vaccinating their children)188, as well as expert consensus (doctors and medical societies around the world agree that vaccinations are important and safe)189,190,191,192. Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 around the world. That information might be subsequently challenged by a correction, which can take the form of a retraction (a simple negation, such as it is not true that arson caused the fire) or a refutation (a more detailed correction that explains why the misinformation was false). Kennedy Sch. There are some findings that repeating corrections might lead to a tendency to recall false claims as true, especially after a 3-day delay or in older adults (age 70+years)287. Educ. 85, 423441 (2018). Personal. However, not every piece of misinformation needs to be a target for correction. 24, 27762780 (2020). & Herz, J. The third socio-affective factor that influences the CIE is emotion. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2020.1870529 (2021). People who exhibit both subclinical depression and rumination tendencies have even been shown to exhibit particularly efficient correction of negative misinformation relative to control individuals, presumably because the salience of negative misinformation to this group facilitates revision139. Family, twin, and adoption . Baum, J. Different types of misinformation exist for example, misinformation that goes against scientific consensus or misinformation that contradicts simple, objectively true facts. Stud. & Dhatt, R. Words matter: political and gender analysis of speeches made by heads of government during the COVID-19 pandemic. 33, 518532 (2021). Res. acknowledges support from the Australian Research Council (Future Fellowship FT190100708). Angew. Powell, D., Bian, L. & Markman, E. M. When intents to educate can misinform: inadvertent paltering through violations of communicative norms. Bull. Merpert, A., Furman, M., Anauati, M. V., Zommer, L. & Taylor, I. a | Integration account of continued influence. 79, 142162 (2009). acknowledge support from the European Commission (Horizon 2020 grant agreement No. For example, when misinformation downplays a risk or threat (for example, misinformation that a serious disease is relatively harmless), corrections that provide a more accurate risk evaluation operate partly through their impact on emotions such as hope, anger and fear. Vraga, E. K. & Bode, L. I do not believe you: how providing a source corrects health misperceptions across social media platforms. Intense Emotions and Strong Feelings What Are Beliefs? Pediatrics 133, e835e842 (2014). The Horrific Effects of Not Being Believed - Dr. David Healy Proc. However, difficulties discerning true from false news headlines can also arise from intuitive (or lazy) thinking rather than the impact of worldviews48. Cobb, M. D., Nyhan, B. Wineburg, S., McGrew, S., Breakstone, J. van der Meer, T. G. L. A. Hum. Psychological research has built solid foundational knowledge of how people decide what is true and false, form beliefs, process corrections, and might continue to be influenced by misinformation even after it has been corrected.
Total Health Physical Therapy, Hidden Lake Gardens Michigan, Myron Mixon Pitmaster Pellet Smoker, Articles W